Filipino public-school teachers' empathy: A cross-sectional, descriptive study
Main Article Content
Keywords
empathic concern, empathy, Filipino teachers, perspective-taking, teaching experience
Abstract
This cross-sectional study describes Filipino public school teachers' empathy levels and whether these levels are affected by attributes such as age, sex at birth, educational attainment, years of service, and grade level taught. One hundred forty-six public school teachers agreed to participate in a survey conducted during in-service training. Teacher participants reported above average levels of affective, cognitive, and overall empathy. Among the attributes, years of service were found to have significant results from non-parametric analysis. Teachers teaching for 1-5 years had significantly higher affective and overall empathy than those teaching for 16-20 years. No such differences were observed for cognitive empathy. The implications of this decreasing trend in affective empathy, but not cognitive empathy, to length of service were discussed. Recommendations were also provided to address the possible varied effects of cognitive and affective empathy on teachers’ well-being and empathy as a risk or protective factor.
Publication History
Version of Record online: December 28, 2023
Manuscript accepted: December 29, 2023
Manuscript revised: December 27, 2023
Manuscript received: February 9, 2023
References
Abulon, E., & Balagtas, M. U. (2015). A phenomenographic inquiry on the concept of competence among Filipino teachers. International Journal of Research Studies in Education, 5(3), 91-104. http://consortiacademia.org/wp-content/uploads/IJRSE/IJRSE_v5i3/1327-4677-1-PB.pdf
Acosta, P., Igarashi, T., Olfindo, R., & Rutkowski, J. (2017). Developing socioemotional skills for the Philippines' labor market. Washington, DC: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The World Bank.
Aldrup, K., Carstensen, B., & Klusmann, U. (2022). Is empathy the key to effective teaching? A systematic review of its association with teacher-student interactions and student outcomes. Educational Psychology Review, 34, 1177-1216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09649-y
Aparicio-Flores, M. P., Esteve-Faubel, J. M., Esteve-Faubel, R. P., & Álvarez-Teruel, J. D. (2020). High academic self-efficacy and dispositional empathy in future teachers. Sustainability, 12(17), https://doi.org/10.3390/su12176728
Asah, S. T., & Singh, N. (2019). SEL for SDGs: Why social and emotional learning (SEL) is necessary to achieve the sustainable development goals. The Blue Dot, UNESCO MGIEP, 54-60. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000372241
Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The Empathy Quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger Syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(2), 163-175. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:jadd.0000022607.19833.00
Batson, D., Ahmad, N., Lishner, D. A., & Tsang, J.-A. (2002). Empathy and altruism. In C. Snyder, & S. J. Lopez, Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 485-498). New York: Oxford University Press.
Batson, C. D., Batson, J. G., Slingsby, J. K., Harrell, K. L., Peekna, H. M., & Matthew, T. R. (1991). Empathic joy and the empathy-altruism hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(3), 413-426. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.61.3.413
Bullough, R. (2019). Empathy, teaching dispositions, social justice, and teacher education. Teachers and Teaching,507-522. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003141907-2
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, CASEL. (2020, July 1). Reunite, renew, and thrive: Social and emotional learning (SEL) roadmap for reopening schools. https://casel.org/casel-gateway-sel-roadmap-for-reopening/
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44(1), 113-126. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113
Decety, J. (2010). The neurodevelopment of empathy in humans. Developmental Neuroscience, 32(4), 257-267. https://doi.org/10.1159/000317771
Dekel, R., Siegel, A., Fridkin, S., & Svetlitzky, V. (2018). The double-edged sword: The role of empathy in military veterans' partners distress. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(2), 216-224. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000265
De Luna, M. C., & Canet, L. (2021). Languages of empathic teaching: An overview of BulSU Hagonoy campus faculty members' role as second parents to students. SSRN. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3794145
Department of Education Division of Batangas. (2017). Department of Education Division of Batangas. https://depedbatangas.org
Department of Education Region 3 - Central Luzon. (2023). Department of Education Region 3 - Central Luzon: https://depedmabalacat.org/index.php
Dunn, O. J. (1964). Multiple comparisons using rank sums. Technometrics, 6(3), 241-252. https://doi.org/10.2307/1266041
Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. A. (1987). The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 101(1), 91-119. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.91
Gambin, M., & Sharp, C. (2018). Relations between empathy and anxiety dimensions in inpatient adolescents. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 31(4), 447-458. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2018.1475868
Gilet, A.-L., Mella, N., Studer, J., Grühn, D., & Labouvie-Vief, G. (2013). Assessing dispositional empathy in adults: A French validation of the IRI. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 45(1), 42-48. https://www.doi.org/10.1037/a0030425
Goroshit, M., & Hen, M. (2016). Teachers' empathy: Can it be predicted by self-efficacy. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 22(7), 805-818. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=eric&AN=EJ1106543&authtype=sso&custid=s8396390&site=eds-live&scope=site
Greenberg, M. T. (2023). Evidence for social and emotional learning in schools. Learning Policy Institute. https://doi.org/10.54300/928.269
Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. (. Feldman-Barrett, Handbook of emotions (pp. 497-512). New York: The Guilford Press.
Haslam, N., & Loughnan, S. (2014 ). Dehumanization and infrahumanization. Annual Review of Psychology, 65(1), 399-423. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115045
Hong, Y., Cai, J., Lan, R., Wang, K., Lian, R., & Chen, L. (2022). Empathy and teachers' fairness behavior: The mediating role of moral obligation and the moderating role of social value orientation. PLoS ONE, 17(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268681
Huang, H., Liu, Y., & Su, Y. (2020). What is the relationship between empathy and mental health in preschool teachers: The role of teaching experience. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01366
Hudnall, J. A., & Kopecky, K. E. (2020). The empathy project: A skills-development game, innovations in empathy development. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 60(1), 164-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2020.02.008
Jennings, P. A., & Frank, J. L. (2015). Inservice preparation for educators. In J. A. Durlak, C. E. Domitrovich, R. P. Weissberg, & T. P. Gullota, Handbook of social and emotional learning (pp. 422-437). New York: The Guilford Press.
Jocson, S. C. (2022). Level of organizational empathy and job satisfaction among teachers amidst pandemic. European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences, 11(4), 257-269. https://european-science.com/eojnss_proc/article/view/6715
Kämpf, M. S., Adam, L., Rohr, M. K., Exner, C., & Wieck, C. (2023). A meta-analysis of the relationship between emotion regulation and social affect and cognition. Clinical Psychological Science, 11(6), 1159-1189. https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026221149953
Kim, K. (2018). To feel or not to feel: Empathy and physician burnout. Acad Psychiatry 42, 157-158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40596-017-0871-5
Lishner, D. A., Stocks, E. L., & Steinert, S. W. (2017). Empathy. In V. Zeigler-Hill, & T. Shackelford, Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. Springer International Publishing.
Maibom, H. L. (2017). Affective empathy. In H. L. Maibom (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of philosophy of empathy (pp. 22-32). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Maximiano-Barreto, M. A., Fabricio, D. d., Luchesi, B. M., & Chagas, M. H. (2020). Factors associated with levels of empathy among students and professionals in the health field: A systematic review. Trends in Psychiatry & Psychotherapy, 42(2), 207-215. https://doi.org/10.1590/2237-6089-2019-0035
Meyers, S., Rowell, K., Wells, M., & Smith, B. C. (2019). Teacher empathy: A model of empathy for teaching for student success. College Teaching, 67(3), 160-168. https://doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2019.1579699
Molina, A., Cahill, H., & Dadvand, B. (2021). The role of gender, setting, and experience in teacher beliefs and intentions in social and emotional learning and respectful relationships education. The Australian Educational Researcher: A Publication of the Australian Association for Research in Education, 1-17.
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., & Perry, R. P. (2002). Academic emotions in students' self-regulated learning and achievement: A program of qualitative and quantitative research. Educational Psychologist, 37(2), 91-105. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3702_4
Philips, A. (2020). Empathy in teaching staff across educational settings. Psychology of Education Review, 44(2), 89-94. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=eue&AN=147085208&authtype=sso&custid=s8396390&site=eds-live&scope=site
Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2017). Social and emotional learning and teachers. Retrieved from Future of Children: www.futureofchildren.org Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Hanson-Peterson, J. L., & Hymel, S. (2015). SEL and preservice teacher education. In J. A. Durlak, C. E. Domitrovich, R. P. Weissberg, & T. P. Gullota, Handbook of social and emotional learning (pp. 406-421). New York: The Guilford Press.
Sova, T., & Turcan, L. (2016). Empathy: A professional value of stress-resistant teachers. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov, 91-96. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=edscee&AN=edscee.509852&authtype=sso&custid=
s8396390&site=eds-live&scope=site
Spaulding, S. (2017). Cognitive empathy. In H. L. Maibom (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of philosophy of empathy (pp. 13-21). Routledge/Taylor & Francis.
Stotland, E. (1969). Exploratory investigations of empathy. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 271-314. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60080-5
Thompson, N., Van Reekum, C. M., & Chakrabarti, B. (2022). Cognitive and affective empathy relate differentially to emotion regulation. Affective Science, 3, 118-134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-021-00062-w
Tone, E. B., & Tully, E. C. (2014). Empathy as a 'risky strength': A multilevel examination of empathy and risk for internalizing disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 26(2), 1547–65. https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0954579414001199
Wink, M. N., LaRusso, M. D., & Smith, R. L. (2021). Teacher empathy and students with problem behaviors: Examining teachers' perceptions, responses,relationships, and burnout. Psychology in the Schools, 58(8), 1575-96. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22516
Wróbel, M. (2013). Can empathy lead to emotional exhaustion in teachers? The mediating role of emotional labor. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 26(4), 581-592. https://doi.org/10.2478/s13382-013-0123-1
Yaghoubi, J., Pervaneh, B. M., & Thoma, S. J. (2021). Age, gender, and educational level predict emotional but not cognitive empathy in Farsi-speaking Iranians. Current Psychology, 40(2), 534-544. https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2021.689304
Zhang, Z. (2022). Toward the role of teacher empathy in students' engagement in English language classes. Frontiers in Psychology, 13: 880935. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.880935
Zhu, J., Wang, X. Q., He, X., Hu, Y.-Y., Li, F., Liu, M.-F., & Ye, B. (2019). Affective and cognitive empathy in pre- teachers with strong or weak professional identity: An ERP study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00175
Acosta, P., Igarashi, T., Olfindo, R., & Rutkowski, J. (2017). Developing socioemotional skills for the Philippines' labor market. Washington, DC: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The World Bank.
Aldrup, K., Carstensen, B., & Klusmann, U. (2022). Is empathy the key to effective teaching? A systematic review of its association with teacher-student interactions and student outcomes. Educational Psychology Review, 34, 1177-1216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09649-y
Aparicio-Flores, M. P., Esteve-Faubel, J. M., Esteve-Faubel, R. P., & Álvarez-Teruel, J. D. (2020). High academic self-efficacy and dispositional empathy in future teachers. Sustainability, 12(17), https://doi.org/10.3390/su12176728
Asah, S. T., & Singh, N. (2019). SEL for SDGs: Why social and emotional learning (SEL) is necessary to achieve the sustainable development goals. The Blue Dot, UNESCO MGIEP, 54-60. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000372241
Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The Empathy Quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger Syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(2), 163-175. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:jadd.0000022607.19833.00
Batson, D., Ahmad, N., Lishner, D. A., & Tsang, J.-A. (2002). Empathy and altruism. In C. Snyder, & S. J. Lopez, Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 485-498). New York: Oxford University Press.
Batson, C. D., Batson, J. G., Slingsby, J. K., Harrell, K. L., Peekna, H. M., & Matthew, T. R. (1991). Empathic joy and the empathy-altruism hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(3), 413-426. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.61.3.413
Bullough, R. (2019). Empathy, teaching dispositions, social justice, and teacher education. Teachers and Teaching,507-522. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003141907-2
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, CASEL. (2020, July 1). Reunite, renew, and thrive: Social and emotional learning (SEL) roadmap for reopening schools. https://casel.org/casel-gateway-sel-roadmap-for-reopening/
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44(1), 113-126. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113
Decety, J. (2010). The neurodevelopment of empathy in humans. Developmental Neuroscience, 32(4), 257-267. https://doi.org/10.1159/000317771
Dekel, R., Siegel, A., Fridkin, S., & Svetlitzky, V. (2018). The double-edged sword: The role of empathy in military veterans' partners distress. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(2), 216-224. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000265
De Luna, M. C., & Canet, L. (2021). Languages of empathic teaching: An overview of BulSU Hagonoy campus faculty members' role as second parents to students. SSRN. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3794145
Department of Education Division of Batangas. (2017). Department of Education Division of Batangas. https://depedbatangas.org
Department of Education Region 3 - Central Luzon. (2023). Department of Education Region 3 - Central Luzon: https://depedmabalacat.org/index.php
Dunn, O. J. (1964). Multiple comparisons using rank sums. Technometrics, 6(3), 241-252. https://doi.org/10.2307/1266041
Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. A. (1987). The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 101(1), 91-119. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.91
Gambin, M., & Sharp, C. (2018). Relations between empathy and anxiety dimensions in inpatient adolescents. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 31(4), 447-458. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2018.1475868
Gilet, A.-L., Mella, N., Studer, J., Grühn, D., & Labouvie-Vief, G. (2013). Assessing dispositional empathy in adults: A French validation of the IRI. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 45(1), 42-48. https://www.doi.org/10.1037/a0030425
Goroshit, M., & Hen, M. (2016). Teachers' empathy: Can it be predicted by self-efficacy. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 22(7), 805-818. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=eric&AN=EJ1106543&authtype=sso&custid=s8396390&site=eds-live&scope=site
Greenberg, M. T. (2023). Evidence for social and emotional learning in schools. Learning Policy Institute. https://doi.org/10.54300/928.269
Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. (. Feldman-Barrett, Handbook of emotions (pp. 497-512). New York: The Guilford Press.
Haslam, N., & Loughnan, S. (2014 ). Dehumanization and infrahumanization. Annual Review of Psychology, 65(1), 399-423. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115045
Hong, Y., Cai, J., Lan, R., Wang, K., Lian, R., & Chen, L. (2022). Empathy and teachers' fairness behavior: The mediating role of moral obligation and the moderating role of social value orientation. PLoS ONE, 17(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268681
Huang, H., Liu, Y., & Su, Y. (2020). What is the relationship between empathy and mental health in preschool teachers: The role of teaching experience. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01366
Hudnall, J. A., & Kopecky, K. E. (2020). The empathy project: A skills-development game, innovations in empathy development. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 60(1), 164-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2020.02.008
Jennings, P. A., & Frank, J. L. (2015). Inservice preparation for educators. In J. A. Durlak, C. E. Domitrovich, R. P. Weissberg, & T. P. Gullota, Handbook of social and emotional learning (pp. 422-437). New York: The Guilford Press.
Jocson, S. C. (2022). Level of organizational empathy and job satisfaction among teachers amidst pandemic. European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences, 11(4), 257-269. https://european-science.com/eojnss_proc/article/view/6715
Kämpf, M. S., Adam, L., Rohr, M. K., Exner, C., & Wieck, C. (2023). A meta-analysis of the relationship between emotion regulation and social affect and cognition. Clinical Psychological Science, 11(6), 1159-1189. https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026221149953
Kim, K. (2018). To feel or not to feel: Empathy and physician burnout. Acad Psychiatry 42, 157-158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40596-017-0871-5
Lishner, D. A., Stocks, E. L., & Steinert, S. W. (2017). Empathy. In V. Zeigler-Hill, & T. Shackelford, Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. Springer International Publishing.
Maibom, H. L. (2017). Affective empathy. In H. L. Maibom (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of philosophy of empathy (pp. 22-32). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Maximiano-Barreto, M. A., Fabricio, D. d., Luchesi, B. M., & Chagas, M. H. (2020). Factors associated with levels of empathy among students and professionals in the health field: A systematic review. Trends in Psychiatry & Psychotherapy, 42(2), 207-215. https://doi.org/10.1590/2237-6089-2019-0035
Meyers, S., Rowell, K., Wells, M., & Smith, B. C. (2019). Teacher empathy: A model of empathy for teaching for student success. College Teaching, 67(3), 160-168. https://doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2019.1579699
Molina, A., Cahill, H., & Dadvand, B. (2021). The role of gender, setting, and experience in teacher beliefs and intentions in social and emotional learning and respectful relationships education. The Australian Educational Researcher: A Publication of the Australian Association for Research in Education, 1-17.
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., & Perry, R. P. (2002). Academic emotions in students' self-regulated learning and achievement: A program of qualitative and quantitative research. Educational Psychologist, 37(2), 91-105. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3702_4
Philips, A. (2020). Empathy in teaching staff across educational settings. Psychology of Education Review, 44(2), 89-94. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=eue&AN=147085208&authtype=sso&custid=s8396390&site=eds-live&scope=site
Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2017). Social and emotional learning and teachers. Retrieved from Future of Children: www.futureofchildren.org Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Hanson-Peterson, J. L., & Hymel, S. (2015). SEL and preservice teacher education. In J. A. Durlak, C. E. Domitrovich, R. P. Weissberg, & T. P. Gullota, Handbook of social and emotional learning (pp. 406-421). New York: The Guilford Press.
Sova, T., & Turcan, L. (2016). Empathy: A professional value of stress-resistant teachers. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov, 91-96. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=edscee&AN=edscee.509852&authtype=sso&custid=
s8396390&site=eds-live&scope=site
Spaulding, S. (2017). Cognitive empathy. In H. L. Maibom (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of philosophy of empathy (pp. 13-21). Routledge/Taylor & Francis.
Stotland, E. (1969). Exploratory investigations of empathy. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 271-314. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60080-5
Thompson, N., Van Reekum, C. M., & Chakrabarti, B. (2022). Cognitive and affective empathy relate differentially to emotion regulation. Affective Science, 3, 118-134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-021-00062-w
Tone, E. B., & Tully, E. C. (2014). Empathy as a 'risky strength': A multilevel examination of empathy and risk for internalizing disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 26(2), 1547–65. https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0954579414001199
Wink, M. N., LaRusso, M. D., & Smith, R. L. (2021). Teacher empathy and students with problem behaviors: Examining teachers' perceptions, responses,relationships, and burnout. Psychology in the Schools, 58(8), 1575-96. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22516
Wróbel, M. (2013). Can empathy lead to emotional exhaustion in teachers? The mediating role of emotional labor. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 26(4), 581-592. https://doi.org/10.2478/s13382-013-0123-1
Yaghoubi, J., Pervaneh, B. M., & Thoma, S. J. (2021). Age, gender, and educational level predict emotional but not cognitive empathy in Farsi-speaking Iranians. Current Psychology, 40(2), 534-544. https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2021.689304
Zhang, Z. (2022). Toward the role of teacher empathy in students' engagement in English language classes. Frontiers in Psychology, 13: 880935. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.880935
Zhu, J., Wang, X. Q., He, X., Hu, Y.-Y., Li, F., Liu, M.-F., & Ye, B. (2019). Affective and cognitive empathy in pre- teachers with strong or weak professional identity: An ERP study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00175
Article Sidebar
Published
Dec 28, 2023
Article Details
How to Cite
Santiago, J. (2023). Filipino public-school teachers’ empathy: A cross-sectional, descriptive study. The Normal Lights, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.56278/tnl.v17i2.2176
Section
Research Article
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.